Parliamentary vs Presidential Governments

In a democratic government there are two most popular types of government: presidential and parliamentary. They are somewhat similar, but their branches, executive,legislative, and judicial, work differently and are responsible for quite different jobs. Most European countries run by the parliamentary systems, such as Britain, because it once was monarchy. Even now the Great Britain has a Queen Elizabeth II. Countries like the United States are ran by the presidential form of government.The most significant difference in the Parliamentary form of government versus the Presidential is that the president is both the chief executive and the head of state. The President has the power to veto laws, execute the instructions of Congress when it declares war, has the right to approve the treaties without the legislature's permission. The president has the right to deploy military, but cannot declare war. Parliamentary system divides the chief executive and the head of state into two separate offices.The chief executive is usually the Prime Minister and the head of state is the president. In Britain, for example, the chief executive is the Prime Minister, and the head of state is the queen Elizabeth II. The Prime Minister is usually the highest political authority in the country and is the head of the Cabinet, or the executive office. He does all the decision making, approves laws, nominates all the ministers and the Cabinet members, has authority to control all the governmental departments. another big difference between the two governments is how they get elected.In Presidential government, for example in the United States, the candidate for presidency is being elected by the Cabinet or the Senate, further to be selected by the votes of the nation. The Prime Minister, as in Britain, is elected by the Cabinet. People do not vote for him, but they do vote for the congressmen, who may soon become the Prime Minister. The President and the Prime Minister are both people wi th the most authorities in their country, and both can be dismissed at any point in time by the Cabinet.The Presidential system and the Parliamentary system differ in each country, because each country has its own constitution. For example in Great Brittan, the person with the most authority is the Prime Minister, but in Russia, it is the President, even thought Russia has a Prime Minister. The two democracies work the same way, only people with the same titles do different jobs, and people with similar jobs have a different title.

Organizational Transformation Issues In A Health Care Clinic

CONTENTS:Pages ASSIGNMENT BRIEF 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 4-5 1. 0. INTRODUCTION 6 1. 1. OBJECTIVES 7 1. 2. METHODOLOGY 8 2. 0. LITERATURE REVIEW 9-25 3. 0. ANALYSIS 26-30 4. 0 REFLECTION 31 REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY ASSIGNMENT BRIEF:ORGANIZATIONAL TRANSFORMATION ISSUES IN A HEALTH CARE CLINIC (CASE STUDY). EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This paper is based on the case study Organizational Transformation in a Health Care Clinic where focus, is the many organizational transformational issues that take place during an organisational development and transformational change of the Health Care Clinic. According to Anderson and Ackerman (2001:39-40 & 50), transformational change is defined as a â€Å"completely new way the organization and its people see the world, their customers, their work and themselves. For organizational change to be successful the procedure would require changes that would affect employees’ behaviour, how they think and the organization’s culture thus raising many transformational issues such as leadership issues, communication issues, training and development issues, and cultural issues. GLOSSARY BehavioursThe way in which people in the organization act in terms of what they do and say that brings the strategy and desired culture to life ControlsWhat gets measured and rewardedChange To alter, modify or transform CultureThe totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs of an institutions FacilitateTo make something easier to do GoalsThe objectives or targets that the organization is trying to achieve LeadershipThe ability to guide, direct and influence persons ManagementPersons in charge of organizing and controlling the affairs of a business or a sector of a business MissionThe purpose of the organizationOrganizationA body of persons organized for some specific purpose Organization Development (OD)A primarily behavioural science approach to planned organizational change that is composed of traditional OD and mainline OD ( Krell 1981) Organizational Transformation (OT)Change that involves transformative changes in the fundamental nature of the organization and requires completely new ways of thinking, behaving and perceiving by members of the organization Realignment To readjust or change something to fit different circumstances StrategyThe approach that the organization is adopting to achieve the goals that support the strategy ValuesThe underlying principles and ethics that drive the organization Vision A picture of a desired future state that is sufficiently appealing and compelling to drive change forward 1. 0. INTRODUCTION:ORGANISATIONAL TRANSFORMATION can be defined as â€Å"a fundamental shift in the way business delivers value to its customers and stakeholders resulting in dramatic change strategy, processes, technology and utilisation and management of human resources to meet the needs of the global economy†. ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT is a system wide application and tra nsfer of behavioural science knowledge to the planned development, improvement and reinforcement of the strategies, structures and processes that lead to organisational effectiveness. Many organizations of today go through changes because of circumstances, wanting to become more developed and/or advanced or simply because of wanting to move with the time.Management of the health care clinic initiated an organizational development programme because of problems originating from the application of modern technology to the jobs of medical technologists. It was discovered that employees of the biochemistry department were greatly dissatisfied because of their feeling of having their skills underutilized, having cultural differences with other staff members, having communication barriers and not having job challenges present. The organizational development staff and the manager agreed that job redesign should take place to bring more autonomy, control, feedback and meaningfulness to the w ork for the employees of the clinic.Over a period of two years evaluation of the results by the organizational development staff found that job characteristics and satisfaction declined for both groups that were involved in the transformational change process. Changing environments of an organization has effect on the organization and the organization’s environment thus creating many transformational issues. Transformational issues include leadership issues, cultural issues, communication issues, cultural issues and training and development issues. 1. 1. OBJECTIVES: 1-To identify the organizational transformational issues that are involved in the change in the health care clinic 2-To evaluate change implementation and intervention strategies at a health care clinic. 1. 2. METHODOLOGY:The researcher in the context of this case study has opted to use the phenomenological approach as opposed to a positivistic approach (Collis and Hussy 2003). Triangulation-â€Å"the use of more than one method or source of data in the study of a phenomenon so that findings can be cross checked† Bryman (2008 pg. 700) Triangulation method of data collection will be used collecting qualitative and quantitative data from both primary and secondary sources for example using unstructured questions and interviews. A variety or literature, theoretical and analytical tools and techniques will be used. The research conducted being a case study the data collection will be consequence on the evidence as suggested in the case study. Random sampling s suggested by Saunders et al cannot be validated, in that for quantitative research the sample size must be of at least 95% in order to obtain realistic or quantifiable data and it may be dangerous and less accurate to do otherwise. 2. 0. LITERATURE REVIEW The core issues which will guide the facilitation of policy development, plans and programs for the organisational will include the under mentioned factors: Lewin’s(1951) fo rce field analysis demonstrates the two key external forces that push organisations into change situations but counteracting, resisting forces are often arisen from inside organisations when the changes are attempted and that change occurs when the driving forces out number resisting forces.This force field is propagated on the idea that social situations can be seen as equilibria that are periodically disturbed when changes to the situation are attempted. The concept of change as modification of these forces keeping a system’s behaviour stable. The two groups of forces are those striving to maintain the status quo and those pushing for change. A state of ‘quasi-stationary equilibrium’ as coined by Lewin(1951) is achieved when both sets of forces are almost equal and current behaviours and attitudes are maintained. FIG. 1 BELOW REFERS. Kurt Lewin (1951) identified three stages of behaviour modification in a simplistic change management model is seen in the table 1 below. LEWIN(1951)THREE STAGE MANAGEMENT TABLE. (TAB. ) UnfreezingIs concerned mainly with selling the change and provides a motive for groups and individuals to change their attitudes, systems, behaviours values and structures. The unfreezing stage will be greatly accelerated if it is recognised that the need for change is immediate, clear and the survival of the organisation depends upon it. MovingIs concerned with recognising what the new attitudes and desirable practise, norms and behaviours should be and communicating it and encouraging others in the organisation to embrace and own it as new job requisites. This aspect can occur through assimilation and exposure to new concepts or from individuals with different perspectives. RefreezingThis stage is the final and stabilising stage of the change implying reinforcement of the new behaviours.Evoking positive reinforcements such as rewards and praise. For negative reinforcement such as sanctions for indiscipline or deviant attitu des. Source:Mullins,Laurie J. (1997) Management and Organisational Behaviour 9th. Edition. FT/Prentice Hall . Again, Lewin(1951) suggested that for change to be successful there must be group activity. Unless group norms are transformed there will be no sustenance to individual actions and without reinforcements change can be short-lived. Employees are beginning to accept that the time has come for change and the changes must be made so that the organisation can remain viable. Schein (1988) model of change outlined the pivotal role of the change agent.Schein (1988) delineated each stage of Lewin’s (1951) model by expressing the dynamics of individual change and how imperative it is for change agent to manage these changes (see table 2 below) the change agent can be seen as the coach, facilitator and motivator assisting individuals through the change can be seen as the coach, facilitator and motivator assisting individuals through the change. According to Schein’s(1988) model the first stage the change agent assists with motivating the individual by disconfirming their behaviours, attitudes and performance. Stage two emphasises the need to get employees to perform tasks differently and actually engaging belief that changing norms and working habits can effectively improve their performance.At Stage three the change agent helps the employee to change his thought patterns by integrating new and well defined behaviours. Self conceptualisation and reinforced performance standards are confirmed. Schein (1988) believes that none of these stages are susceptible to self management but need the intervention of change agents. In furtherance, Cummings and Worley (2005) planned change concept outlined how change can be implemented in organisations. This action research model places heavy emphasis on gathering and diagnosing data prior to action planning and implementation and on assessment of results after action is taken. The action research model describes change as a cyclical process involving joint activities between employees and organisational ractitioners. Figure 2 below compares Lewin (1951) change model to other models of planned change such as the positive model and the action research model all of which describes the phases by which planned change occurs in organisations. Initiation of successful organisational change modified restructuring strategies and organisational efficiencies can be envisaged through these theories. In this model many steps overlap and interact in practise. This simple model has been used to analyse and manage change and can be useful at times. However, it tends to treat people as the objects of manipulation and does not involve them in the change process at all.All three approaches emphasises the application of behavioural science knowledge, involve organisation members in the change process to varying degrees and recognise that the interaction between an organisation and a consultant constitutes an i ntervention that affects the organisation. Lewin’s(1951) change model approach differs from the other two models in that it deals with the general process of planned change whereas the others target specific organisational development(OD) activities. To manage strategic change effectively, it is important to understand its causes. Two main classifications of the causes of change are outlined by the following theorists: 1) Tichy’s(1983) four main causes of strategic change 2) Kanter, Stein and Jick’s(1992) three dynamics for strategic change. According to Tichy (1983) four main triggers for change:TICHY(1983) TRIGGERS FOR CHANGE †¢Environment- shift in the economy, competitive pressures and legislative changes can lead to demands for strategic change. †¢Business relationships-alliances, acquisitions, value chain linkages or core competencies. †¢Technology †¢People-new entrants may have different educational or cultural backgrounds or expectati ons that require change. Source:Mullins, Laurie,J. (1997) Management and Organisational Behaviour 9th. Edition FT/Prentice Hall. (TABLE 3) Tichy(1983) suggests that change is not only inevitable in such circumstances but can be managed to produce effective results. Kanter, Stein and Jick(1992)identified three causes of strategic change: Environment-changes here compared with the situation in the organisation can lead to demands for strategic change.Life cycle differences-changes in one division or part of the organisation as it moves into a phase of its life cycle that is different from another division may necessitate change. Typically, change issues related to the size, shape and influence of such parts and involve coordination and resource allocation issues between them. Political power changes inside the organisation-individuals, groups and other stakeholders may struggle for power to make decisions or enjoy the benefits associated with the organisation. For example, shifts in s trategy from production oriented to customer oriented would be accompanied by a shift in the power balance between those two functions.The researcher suggested that the causes were constantly shifting, sometimes slowly and at other times faster. Kanter, Stein and Jick’s(1992) theory can be directly related to the Health care clinic as the organisation go through the process of change as it relates to the external environment changes so too must the organisation, as one part of the organisation change so too must other parts of the organisation change to ‘catch up’. Internal and external factors influence changes. Kanter, Stein and Jick (1992) identified three major forms taken by the change process. They linked these three categories of people involved in the change process, to produce a three stage process for managing change.These three forms were: 1)The changing identity of the organisation. 2)Coordination and transition issues as an organisation moves through its life cycle. 3)Controlling the political aspects of the organisation. The three major categories of people involved in the change process: I. Change strategists-those responsible for leading strategic change in the organisation. They may not only be responsible for implementation. II. Change implementers –those who have direct responsibility for change management. III. Change recipients- those who receive the change programme with varying degrees of anxiety depending on the nature of the change and how it is presented.Kanter, Stein and Jick(1992) offer one way of structuring and managing aspects of the change process. However, these categories of people only give limited indicators of how to manage the process. Kanter, Stein and Jick’s(1992) model may be suited to major changes than the more common ongoing process. According to Cummings and Worley (2005) there are five major activities involved in order to lead and manage change and they are done in the order in wh ich they are performed. These in order of priority are: ? Motivating change. ?Creating a vision. ?Developing political support. ?Managing the transition. ?Sustaining momentum. A major point to note is that in this model, overcoming resistance to change is required early in the change.The change process in the organisation can be severely affected by resistance to change. People tend to very reluctant to move from their perceived ‘comfort zone’ to some unforeseen place as it relates to change thereby begging the questions of whether their contributions will mean anything for them in the future. Albrecht (1983) provided an interesting model of change in which organisations undergo the change cycle. Individuals also experience symptoms of change response cycle. This cycle is prevalent when change is dictated or imposed by management and internal and external forces. ( Table 4 below refers. ) (TABLE4) Source:Cummings, Thomas G. nd Christohper G. Worley,(2005) Organisation D evelopment and Change 8th. Edition-,Thomson Southwestern. The six box model of change was introduced by Weisbord (1978) as a diagnostics tool to measure organisational effectiveness and looks at the inter-related elements within the organisation. Purpose. Is the representation of the organisation and an understanding of the employee’s agreement and commitment to it. Leadership.. – Includes the style and integrity of the employee and their ability to be goal oriented. Structure . -Displays the organisational chart, reporting styles and systems, job responsibility and delegation of authority Relationship. Are those of the employees in the organisation together with their norms, behavioural patterns, conflict management and their degrees of inter dependence Rewards. -Represent what the organisation needs to rewards both in real and psychological terms and include incentives for ‘doing the right thing’ Helpful Mechanisms. -Are the different and varied formal p rocedures and management systems that monitor and coordinate the organisation’s work. . According to Kotter(1995) there are eight steps to transforming an organisation. Source:Cummings, Thomas G. and Christohper G. Worley,(2005) Organisation Development and Change 8th. Edition-,Thomson Southwestern.Kotter(1995) suggests † that for change to be successful 75% of the company’s management needs to buy into the change and really work hard at step and spend significant time and energy building urgency before moving into the other steps. Don’t panic and jump in too fast because you don’t want to risk further short term losses, if you act without being properly prepared, you could be in for a bumpy ride’’ As a result of change many times there is the issue of conflict arising. Conflict is inevitable just as change and assuming that organisational goals are broadly dersiable , there are two aspects of conflict that are relevant and leaders mus t take cogniscance of. According to Hunt (1986) conflict can be highly desirable, it can energise relationships and clarify issues. Conflict can be constructive as well as destructive. the constructive effects of conflict are hat it can introduce different solutions to problems, power relationships can be defined more clearly,it can encouragecreativity and testing of ideas,it focuses attention on individual contributions, it brings emotions out in the open and it provides opportunities for the release of hostile feelings that may have been, or may be, repressed otherwise. Conflict can have negative effects as it may distract attention from the task, it can polorise views and dislocate the group, odjectives may be subverted in favour of secondary goals,it encourages defensive or spoiling behaviour,it may result in the disintegration of the group and it can foster emotional, win-lose within the group. Job design involves the planning of the job. This includes its contents, the methods of performing the job and how it relates to other jobs in the organization (Rahim 2001).Job design and redesign main focus is to put together the needs of the employees that are involved in the different jobs with the production necessitate of the organization in mind. One of the main aims of job redesign is to supply the organizations workers with significant work that fit effectively into the flow of the organization. Enriching, enlarging or simplifying are also goals of job redesign. For the improvement of performance job redesign theory focuses on, job rotation and job enlargement. As in the case it was shown that the general feeling of the employees of the clinic was that there was an absence of job challenge and that technology had simplified the work to be done.According to Herzberg’s theory of motivation, workers motivation to work depends on the nature of the work and how challenging it is. Lack of this challenge will allow employees to become disenchanted with thei r job thus having a negative impact on organizational transformation. Having job challenges will help in motivating the employee to work. Adair (2004) believes that motivation comes from within a person but is fuelled by external factors eg. having work challenges to be able to align themselves to achieve a specific goal, (the goal being a challenge but yet it is attainable by the employee). Job rotation where the employees will be allowed to work on different tasks or in different departments.This will increase job satisfaction and would have helped the employees as they would have had the opportunity to perform different tasks, thus inhibiting boredom on the job. Learning will also take place as employees also learn new tasks and have different responsibilities with job rotation. Job enlargement whether horizontal or vertical would also lead to a more successful organizational transformation as it would also help in giving the employees a challenge as they will have more to do. Ti me is also extended so that the challenge of doing more is realistic. Self esteem will be contributed to as the employee would be entrusted with exercising judgement thus having added responsibility for tasks.Job design and redesign is mainly done by the management of the organization who are responsible for making decisions about how to design those jobs ( Mintzberg 1973) as they see fit. Although managers would have more influence and control over job design than they do over structure, technology, culture, relationships and people ( Hackman & Oldham 1980), the time and attention of managers would still be greatly needed (Dutton &: Ashford, 1993). Pfeffer(1994) believed that the depending on how managers make decisions about job design, it can be a liability or a potential source of competitive advantage for organizations however, many managers often use simplified work as the default approach to designing jobs (Campion &: Stevens, 1991). 3. 0. ANALYSIS/FINDINGS:The researcher in her analysis of the case study of the particular health care clinic sought to ascertain where the problems were and attempts to ascribe the requisite solutions. There were certain strengths as well as considerable weaknesses associated with the case study. It was found that Lewin’s(1951) models were followed to the letter in the structure of this health care clinic and that factors outside these frameworks were not used thereby creating obvious gaps. TECHNOLOGY: Tichy’s(1983) four main triggers of successful strategic change identifies technology as an important driver in the change. As is the situation in the case study it was found that with the advent of new modern technology strengths as well as weaknesses are abound.The medical technologists in the bio chemistry department were either inept with the new technology or were not prepared for the imposition of the new technology thereby dissatisfaction was wide spread, which can be seen as another weakness. Technologi cal shifts can substantially impact on the quality or content of the work and may ultimately influence the factors that affect survivability of the organisation. SOURCES OF DISSATISFACTION Paragraph 2 of the case study identifies several sources of dissatisfaction among the technologists that were of concern. The under mention identifies the concerns together with the possible cause and effect and likely solutions. Under utilisation in their work†-this can be seen as a weakness in the organisation and could have been possible as the OD staff failed and or neglected to take into consideration issues such as job design and redesign RAHIM (2001), job rotation, job enrichment, job enlargement and job evaluation on employees at the health care clinic. â€Å"Communication within the laboratories was insufficient†-it is apparent that the communication channels between laboratories were severed or perhaps were insufficient. As such the OD experts should have embarked on team bu ilding workshops and organisational development seminars and sufficient enough training and development exercises. Work wasn’t evenly distributed†- this would suggest that there was a certain lack of supervision in the laboratories and there was a failure to have equity distribution in assignment and management of tasks. The issues of capacity management and production planning are areas that OD experts should have looked at. â€Å"Medical staff didn’t treat them with the respect that they deserve†-this clearly suggests that the medical staff felt that the technologists were their subordinates and felt that way because the technologists may be less remunerated as compared to the medical staff. As such OD staff should take into consideration issues such as reward management systems, merit recognition eg. Employee of the month, performance pays system, team based pay and a comprehensive performance related merit system of remuneration. The advent of technolo gy had had simplified the work to the point that it no longer seemed to require the level of training common among medical technologists†-this would suggest that technologists should have had enhanced training in other skill sets or multi skill training which would give them the extended capacity to build manpower capacity. â€Å"Studies in personnel management literature†-there is no such evidence in the case study to suggest that there were any studies in the personnel management literature carried out. â€Å"Job challenge was a primary cause of job turnover†-this is an issue really of job retention as opposed to job attrition. By looking at performance appraisal strengths and weakness can be determined.In looking at job turnover OD require job retention, job security and career and talent management. LEADERSHIP: The art of leadership is saying no, not yes. It is very easy to say yes. (TONY BLAIR, 1994) Are leaders born or made? Trait (1950) theory seems to sug gest that leaders are born and not made, yet Stodgill(1949) and Mann (1959) suggests that there are few relationship between the traits possessed by leaders and their performance. The Trait (1950) theory that leaders are born failed under scrutiny (Zaccaro, 2007). Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) having examined existing literature on leadership suggests that there are six leadership traits.They are: 1-Drive 2-Leadership motivation 3-Honesty and integrity 4-Self confidence 5-Cognitive ability 6-Knowledge of the business As in the case study there is no clear indication as to the leader (Weisbord 1978) of the change process as it is reputed that the OD staff had discussions with the managers. Clearly no one took charge of the change process from the onset of the planned change. There is no evidence to suggest whether the OD staffs were adequately qualified to conduct such a change process or whether the interviews were conducted professionally. COMMUNICATION Communication is a key compon ent in the facilitation of any change process.For this reason communication is heightened importance when change is needed. Bordia et al (2004) suggests that communication during change is vital to manage employee uncertainty and feelings of loss of control. As was the case in this case study there is hardly any evidence to suggest that there was a proper reporting structure so that information on the change initiatives were being communicated to the technologists by the OD experts. To this end came the issue of the readiness for change as this is an important indicator to coping with resistance to change so suggests Armenakis, Harris and Mossholde(1993). Communication strategies need to emphasize two messages.They are: 1- The need for the change, that is, indicating what the organisation is doing as opposed to what it should be doing and 2- The ability to change successfully, that is, it is important that the employees believe that the change could be done thereby encouraging them to make the extra effort. TIMEFRAME: Apart from using volunteers to assist in the analysing of the data which is in itself questionable as there is evidence that they are overworked and not properly remunerated. The OD staff administered questionnaires which asked for confidential opinion as opposed to change or job analysis questions and there is no indication of its contents. These questionnaires sought only quantitative data.Whether the truth will be written on those questionnaires is anybody’s guess as there is no validation of the data. There is no clear definition as to the timeline for the project and no implementation plan. The random sampling data collecting took two months seems to be incredibly long for such an exercise. To suggest that two years later the OD staff evaluated the results of the change program was incredulous to say the least as this was certainly not an effort in organisational transformation but rather an incremental change plan. This was an exerci se that was limited in scope, time and cost thereby failing to meet its objectives. RESISTENCE TO CHANGEResistance to change is a widely used term that generally gives a bad or a negative connotation. It us usually asked of employees to change something in the organisation that they may have been comfortable with for their entire life. That change will not come easy at all, there will be some anguish and fight and may even be the source of collective group action like strikes and industrial action by employees. This is not necessarily a bad thing. Ford and Ford(2009) suggests that resistors to change should not be overlooked but that resistance should be taken in a positive light and accepted as a form of feedback that can actually build and encourage the change process.Pockets of resistance can also be found with the Lewin (1951) model of unfreezing, moving and refreezing. As the activity of unfreezing comes to an end resistance is usually found as employees attempt to move. This i s quite natural as without proper communicating many are unsure of their future especially the employees who have fallen into their comfort zone. As with the case study there was a definite feature of resistance to change. 4. 0. REFLECTION: This change process was a failure from its inception because the very basic of protocols were not adopted. The OD staff sought to enlist volunteers who do not have the requisite educational capacity to carry out that vital function of collecting and analysing data.The human resources department should have been the ones directly involved in the change process. The change agent should have been engaged who is a highly trained professional in organisational development to lead the drive towards organisational transformation. In this case study the data collected would at best be unscientific and unrealistic to say the least. Change, whether planned or emergent can take a number of forms, each of which requires a different type of action. Utilising collective methods of action research together with capacity building and the will to include people in the change process will go a long way in achieving successful change.In conclusion it must be said that there are unprecedented opportunities and challenges in the health care industry for which organisational development (OD) practitioners must be aware of and as such there can be significant positive growth and development by linking strategic activities of the organisation towards the direction of organisational transformation. Organisational transformation can also be achieved by being able to facilitate integration of people and processes across traditional department and organisational boundaries and by acknowledging competencies and integrity. REFERENCES: ATKINSON, P. E. (1990) ‘CREATING CULTURAL CHANGE’ MANAGEMENT SERVICES VOL. 34 NO. 7, PP. 6-10.BPP PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION- ORGANISATIONS AND BEHAVIOUR SUPPORTIND FOUNDATION DEGREES, MANDATORY UNIT 3 P. 185.. CU MMINGS,T. G. AND WORLEY,C. G. (2005)’ ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE’, 8TH. EDITION,THOMPSON SOUTHWESTERN. P. 509. HANDY, C. B. (1993)’ UNDERSTANDING ORGANISATIONS’, 4TH. EDITION KOTTER, J. P. AND COHEN, D. S. (2002)’ THE HEART OF CHANGE’, HARVARD BUSINESS SCHOOL PRESS MAYLOR, J. (2004) ‘MANAGEMENT 2ND. EDITION’, F T/ PRENTICE HALL ,PP. 69-74. Mc LEAN, A. AND MARSHALL, J. (1998) ‘CULTURES AT WORK, LOCAL GOVERNMENT TRAINING BOARD’. MULLINS,LAIRIE, J. (1997)’MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR 9TH. EDITION FT/PRENTICE HALL SENIOR, B.AND FLEMING, J. (1993). ‘ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE’, 3RD. EDITION, FT/ PRENTICE HALL. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bradford & Burke. 2005. Re-Inventing Organisation Development, Wiley Publication. Cummings & Worley. 2004. Organisation Development & Change, Thomson Publishing French & Bell. 1999. Organisational Development: Behavioural Science Interventions for Organisation Improve ment, Prentice Hall Publication. French, Wendell,Bell, Cecil& Zawacki, Robert. 2004. Organization Development & Transformation: Managing Effective Change, McGraw-Hill Publication Stacy, Ralph. 2000. Strategic Management & Organisational Dynamics: The Challenge Of Complexity, FT/Prentice Hall.Morgan, Gareth. 2006. Images of Organisation, Sage Publication. Handy, Charles. 2002. Age of Un-reason, Pitman Handy, Charles. 1993. Understanding Organisations, Penguin Schein, Edgar. 1998. Process Consultation Revisited, Prentice Hall Schien & Gallos. 2006. Organisational Development, Jossey Bass Publication Burnes, Bernard. 2004. Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to Organisational Dynamics, Prentice Hall. Oppenheim, A. N. 1992. Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement Vansina, Leoplod & Vasina-Cobbaert, M. J. 2008. Psychodynamics for Consultants & Managers: from Understanding to Leading Meaningful Change, Wiley Publication.

A novel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

A novel - Essay Example When one reads her writings, one theme will stand out as the central theme and that is, ‘the love of God’. The phrase, ‘God is love’ is clearly felt from beginning to end of all her books. It is the context theme for all other themes in her writings. While she was young, one of her peers threw a rock on her face and critically injured her. But despite this injury, she neither lost her senses nor her character, meaning, the injury did not affect her brain. Since that injury, she has had a deep gratitude to God for sparing her life and also protecting her mental health. It was this incidence that introduced her to the love of God, and it was her desire to share with the world the love and goodness of God. Her knowledge of God’s love further increased when she read in the Bible that God sent his only begotten Son to die for our sins. With this extra knowledge of the love of God, she was motivated and inspired to reveal to the world through literature, th is precious love that had conquered her heart. She wrote volumes upon volumes of books about different subjects, but at the core of all those writings, the love of God was revealed. In her book ‘Steps to Christ’ she said, ‘God is love’ is written upon every opening bud, upon every spire of springing grass. The lovely birds making the air vocal with their happy songs, the delicately tinted flowers in their perfection perfuming the air, the lofty trees of the forest with their rich foliage of living green all testify to the tender, fatherly care of our God and to His desire to make His children happy. (White, 11) She continues to say that, nature and revelation alike testify of God's love. Our Father in heaven is the source of life, of wisdom, and of joy. Look at the wonderful and beautiful things of nature. Think of their marvelous adaptation to the needs and happiness, not only of man, but of all living creatures. The sunshine and the rain, that gladden and refresh the earth, the hills and seas and plains, all speak to us of the Creator's love. It is God who supplies the daily needs of all His creatures. (White, 9) These passages in her book clearly tell us that it was her earnest desire to reveal to the world God’s great love, and that this theme saturated all her writings regardless of the topic she was discussing. In her other book ‘Testimonies to the church’, she said that, all the paternal love which has come down from generation to generation through the channel of human hearts, all the springs of tenderness which have opened in the souls of men, are but as a tiny rill to the boundless ocean when compared with the infinite, exhaustless love of God. Tongue cannot utter it; pen cannot portray it. You may meditate upon it every day of your life; you may search the Scriptures diligently in order to understand it; you may summon every power and capability that God has given you, in the endeavor to comprehend the l ove and compassion of the heavenly Father; and yet there is infinity beyond. (White, 740) She continues writing that, you may study that love for ages; yet you can never fully comprehend the length and the breadth, the depth and the height, of the love of God in giving His Son to die for the world. Eternity itself can never fully reveal it. Yet as we study the Bible and meditate upon the life of Christ and the plan of redemption, these great themes will open to our understanding more and more. (White, 740) Once again, here is another clear proof that the love of God is the

The Effects of American Imperialism on Native Americans Essay

The Effects of American Imperialism on Native Americans - Essay Example This essay analyzes that after the war between Indian and French national ended in present America, Britain designed an effective system of governance. The colony had to tighten control on the American territory. In response to this need, the British government provided various policies. The federal government in the present United States of America had to inculcate the aspect of nationalism on the Natives. One of the policies related to nationalism for the Natives of America was the Snyder Indian Citizenship Act. This Act came into effect in the year 1924. The basic principle of the act was to assimilate Indians and other natives into the American culture.  This essay analyzes that after the war between Indian and French national ended in present America, Britain designed an effective system of governance. The colony had to tighten control on the American territory. In response to this need, the British government provided various policies. The federal government in the present Un ited States of America had to inculcate the aspect of nationalism on the Natives. One of the policies related to nationalism for the Natives of America was the Snyder Indian Citizenship Act. This Act came into effect in the year 1924. The basic principle of the act was to assimilate Indians and other natives into the American culture.  The U.S during the nineteen century was influenced towards expanding it territories westwards. Concerning the expansion, the government would have to occupy territories owned by native tribe communities.

Mineral and Water Function Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mineral and Water Function - Essay Example Water also carries oxygen and important nutrients to cells (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2014). Water is the most important component of the cells in our bodies, and there is no way that it can be replaced totally, or Nature would have offered a better solution of water replacement than sodas and other drinks. However, this is the case with normal people, who want to stay hydrated. In case of athletes, dehydration can best be prevented with a sports drink. This is because after doing exercise or a sport, the blood flow in the athletes’ systems increases, generating heat, which is carried to the skin, where sweat is produced. If plain water is taken in, the absence of sodium will dilute the sodium concentration in the body cells, and the brain will also get the message that the thirst is over. The athlete will stop drinking, but the sodium loss is not compensated. However, sports drinks contain sodium (a mineral) and other electrolytes that the body loses with extreme sweat. Hence, sports drinks are beneficial for athletes, but common people should not ignore the importance of water to stay hydrated. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2014). Functions of water in the body. Nutrition and Healthy Eating. Retrieved April 30, 2014, from

DIURETICS DRUGS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

DIURETICS DRUGS - Essay Example Other classes of diuretics include the calcium-sparing diuretics, osmotic diuretics, low-ceiling diuretics among others. Just as vasodilators are, diuretics are also used to cure diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure, among other respiratory diseases. These drugs aid the maintenance of the right blood pressure, and also increase the release of toxins from the body system. These diuretic drugs also improve the cardiac output and increase the pressure in the pulmonary capillaries. For diabetes patients, mostly, practitioners prefer to administer ultra-filtration therapy, claiming its effectiveness over diuretics. Before taking diuretic drugs, a patient ought to tell the doctor if he or she is taking other medications to avoid mixing drugs (diabetes and heart conditions) present a high risk in the event of drug contamination. Every diuretic drug comes with a medication guide that helps a patient to follow procedural treatment to hypertension or diabetes (Breidthardt et al, 2013). Diuretics therapy, for instance when administered to heart failure patients, has diverse functions that pose physiological effects to the body. The cardinal component in diuretic therapy provides a sodium balance in heart failure management. Other effects include improving dyspnea, general functioning of the cardiac system and also enhance exercise tolerance. Also, such diuretics reduce filling pressures in the cardiac system and also enhance decongestion in the pulmonary tubes (Blijderveen et al, 2014). This section relates to blood pressure (hypertension). Diuretics can either be administered as first generation or second subsequent generation. Studies indicate that when diuretics are given to hypertension patients as first generation medication, the outcome is outstanding and the patients experience significant reduction of pressure, hence reduced

Managed Care System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managed Care System - Essay Example Till 1980’s there was only a trifle between the public and private players of health care. But, the overall payment system concentrated on fee for service basis. Accordingly, each visit was counted as an episode. The physician had the liberty to administer treatment according to his diagnosis. As private insurance mostly dominated the scene, the physicians, to fulfill their selfish ends, could also recommend for unwanted tests, hospital stays and drugs. Patient safety was their only cap and they could re-jig monetary considerations underneath this consideration. The insurers also never complained as major bill payment was a responsibility of the employers. But, employers understanding this disadvantage started to backlash on the reasons of uncapped expenditure and over utilization of resources. This of course was a valid point. As more and more are getting enrolled into the health care, fee for service model has become outdated giving way for Managed Care Organizations (MCO’s). (Christensen. C., Grossman. J., Hwang. J. 2009) As accountability comes into picture, unnecessary expenditure gets curbed automatically. From past 30 years, MCO’s have been well placed and growing in the market. The main postulates of their existence are: Lowered rates of hospital admission, in patient treatment, procedural expenditure. This has resulted in a mixed result of outcomes that some patients were treated satisfactorily while many did not have that contentment about care practices. Development of state insurance sector commensurate to private players. Giving an inevitable choice to the employer and employees to be enrolled into those organizations for reduced health costs. (Anonymous., 2010). All these recommendations by the bill only point out that the MCO’s are here to stay for some more time. If not for them, accountability and cost reduction for the insurer’s purpose fulfillment would never be possible. In short, the arrangement seeks to reduce the health

Company Law globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Company Law globalization - Essay Example But significant parts are outmoded or have become redundant and they are enshrined in law that is often unnecessarily complicated and inaccessible." In today's world, global companies are able to control more human and economic resources than many nation states. The economic influence of these firms goes far beyond stock markets; these organisations have a genuine impact on people's lives, as the case of Enron illustrated in the U.S. With this perspective, questions like, who governs corporations and how are top executives appointed, or is economic globalisation changing corporate governance practices, are worth asking. Setting up and running a company in the UK is governed by the Companies Act 1985, but many other set of laws affect company operating procedures. These include the Sale of Goods Act 1979 that regulates the sale of any item; the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 which regulates the minimum standards of health and safety for employees; and the Employers' Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969 which requires employers to have insurance against physical injury and disease sustained by employees. Likewise, there are two types of companies: Private Company - this is usually a small or a family-run business. ... Public Company - must have a minimum capital of 50,000, offer shares to the public, and must have at least two directors or members. They must include "plc" (Public Limited Company) in the registered company name. The law characteristically views a company as a fictional person, a legal person, or a moral person (as opposed to a natural person). Under such tenet, traditionally seen as a legal fiction, a corporation enjoys many of the rights and obligations of individual persons, such as the ability to own property, sign binding contracts, pay taxes, have certain constitutional rights, and otherwise participate in society. It must be noted that corporations do not possess all the rights appertaining to individuals, for instance, in most jurisdictions, a corporation cannot become a citizen, nor vote. On the other hand, corporations often have rights not granted to individuals, such as treaty rights or as an example, the right to stockpile restricted pharmaceuticals without a prescription (Cooke, 1950). In common law nations, standard statement of this theory is found in Lennard's Carrying Co Ltd v Asiatic Petroleum Co Ltd [1915] AC 705, where Lord Haldane stated: "My Lords, a corporation is an abstraction. It has no mind of its own any more than it has a body of its own; its active and directing will must consequently be sought in the person of somebody who is really the directing mind and will of the corporation, the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation." Salient features of incorporation include: Limited liability - Unlike in a partnership or sole proprietorship, members of a modern business corporation have "limited" liability for the corporation's debts and obligations (this is

The Major General Environment Developments that Impinge Upon the Europ Essay

The Major General Environment Developments that Impinge Upon the European Automotive Industry - Essay Example Further Europe has highly evolved manufacturing facilities with automobiles constituting 36% of the total manufacturing of Europe. Of the five major automobile giants General Motors, Toyota Ford, Daimler-Benz, and Volkswagen, the last two are indigenous to Europe but all have a strong European presence with a number of smaller groups adding to the competition. GM markets its products under popular brand names of Opel and Vauxhall. The Ford Europe has staged major acquisitions in Europe by buying Land Rover, Aston Martin, and Volvo, Jaguar. Ford was the first US company to set up its manufacturing base in Europe as far back as 1920. Volkswagen, the German manufacturer is the most aggressive of all the European companies having acquired brands like Skoda, Bentley, Lamborghini, Audi, Buggati, and Seat. Since the early twentieth-century European car manufacturers enjoyed the competitive advantage due to their location. Europe accounted for the maximum percentage of consumers while it also has the largest number of manufacturers. However, it faced the first trans-continental threats first from the US car majors like Ford, GM in the early twentieth century and then from the highly efficient Japanese cars in the 70s. Political: Europe is an economically integrated region of 27 countries. The industries have to conform to near equality in trade laws and manufacturing standards especially the emission standards of the European Union. European Commission, for example, wants to do away with the rigid system of national car dealers (Madslien). Since dismantling of the Communist regimes in the Warsaw Pact countries, a large East European market has opened up for the European manufacturer. Due to the advantage provided by a common culture and proximate culture, the European automotive manufacturers were quick to capitalise on it. Companies like Volkswagen, Ford Europe, Daimler-Benz, and Peugeot Citroen have set up manufacturing facilities in East Europe.  Ã‚  

John Stuart Mill Essay Example for Free

John Stuart Mill Essay In this essay I will discuss Utilitarianism by first explaining how Utilitarians are consequentialists who base their actions on the pleasure of pain of their consequences. Secondly, Jeremy Bentham will be discussed as the propagator of the Principle of Utility which determines human self-interest and voluntary action to achieve the greatest good or greatest pleasure. Thirdly, I will discuss John Stuart Mills and his more complex version of Utilitarianism. To clarify the Utilitarian theory I will illustrate and assess different examples of complex situations, simultaneously doing a critique on the theory, in order to conclude the relevance of Utilitarianism in society. (101) Consequentialism looks at the desirability and undesirability of consequences; meaning people base their actions on what is right and wrong by the virtue of the outcome. The Principle of Utility was derived by Jeremy Bentham and originated from psychological hedonism. Psychological hedonism is a form of psychological egoism that describes the human motive and desire to experience pleasure and avoid pain. The Principle of Utility is therefore described as the determination of right and wrong actions with right actions producing the greatest happiness or greatest good for the greatest number of people, while wrong actions produce unhappiness and pain. Thus, Utilitarians can be seen as Consequentialists because their actions are governed by consequences which can either result in pleasure or pain. Jeremy Bentham derived the Principle of Utility and viewed this principle as the foundation of all ethics. Bentham searched for what had the ultimate intrinsic value. For something to be of intrinsic value it must be desirable in itself, for example, health. People do not want good health for any other reason than to be healthy. There are many things that can be seen to have intrinsic value, such as knowledge, success, or God’s Will. However, Bentham wanted to identify the intrinsic value that everyone, religious or not, could agree on. He therefore decided that pleasure was the only thing with the ultimate intrinsic value as it allows an objective approach to morality. As mentioned previously, hedonism involves seeking pleasure of both the body and mind. The best actions result in maximized pleasure, but this raised the question of which pleasures are relevant. Therefore Bentham used hedonic calculus, consisting of 7 criteria, to calculate the ranking of different pleasures. These criteria could then be applied to evaluate even complex moral dilemmas. John Stuart Mill was greatly influenced by Bentham. Mill formed a more complex form of Utilitarianism by reconciling Bentham’s theory with complex issues that were not included in the original theory. Even though he critiques Bentham, Mill still used the basic framework of Bentham’s theory. Mill defines happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain, â€Å"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness. However, he argues that pleasure can differ in quality and quantity. Higher pleasure; such as intellectual, social and creative pursuits (which are more plentiful); are rated higher than baser pleasures, such as bodily pleasures. Furthermore, Mill argues that achieving goals also contribute to happiness. He promotes human dignity. He places focus on the â€Å"Golden Rule† for example â€Å"to love your neighbor as yourself†. He is therefore more concerned about altruism than self interest as in Bentham’s case. And ultimately he views justice as based on utility and the need for human rights exists because they contribute to human happiness. (476) [max 400] Examples + Critique There are positive as well as negative aspects to Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism provides answers and reasons for people to be moral. Despite society having many conflicting moral views and beliefs it is commonly agreed that pleasure is good and pleasure is bad It provides a basic platform for making ethical decisions and also results in objective fairness which contributes to social harmony. It makes use of common sense and is widely practiced and this may result in socially beneficial changes. Utilitarianism is flexible and sensitive to certain circumstances even if there are different views on what is right and wrong in complex situations. Abortions can be used to illustrate the vast variety of views on a certain subject. Some people may be for abortion and some against. Either view has very different consequences for the action they take. Both views may contribute to the greater good depending on the individual. [elaborate ] There are however some negative aspects. Some may view Bentham’s theory as too uncivilized and it is uncertain how Mill can consider one pleasure more important than another. If pleasure is the only criterion it takes us back to Bentham’s theory and this is an example of circular reasoning. Utilitarianism aims to achieve the greatest amount of happiness but also to create happiness of greatest number. Therefore which do you choose: 4 completely happy people and 6 unhappy people, or 10 mildly happy people? This represents the incoherence of the Principle of Utility. Also, can slavery be justified if the benefit to society is greater than the misfortune of the slaves? Is the total happiness of society thus greater than the unhappiness of the slaves? If we also look at an example of where there are two people dying in need of a kidney: a family member and a scientist on the verge of making a cure for cancer, who will you donate your kidney to? Will you abide to your obligation to your family, or will you abide to the greater good of society? (336) [max 300: 150+150] Conclusion: By discussing how Bentham and Mill created the Principle of Utility we have discovered that Utilitarianism aims to satisfy the greater good and greater happiness of society, while avoiding pain and unhappiness. Utilitarians make their decisions depending of their consequences. Even though Utilitarianism does create a foundation for dealing with ethical issues and provides reason for people to be moral, it does not provide enough compensation for individual rights. Also, not everything can be evaluated by the same standard and happiness in itself is more complex than the theory makes provision for. Therefore, Utilitarianism does not fit into modern day society as people are more focused on self-interest and human rights are hugely important. (114).

Building Social Capital and Expanding Networks

Building Social Capital and Expanding Networks In 2005 MySpace was the most popular website on the internet, even more than Google. Samy Kamkar, a 19 years old computer enthusiast in attempt to find an exploit on the social website inserted some code to allow him to be added as a friend if someone visited his profile account, furthermore the code would replicate on the visitors account and those visiting the infected account would also add him as a friend. In just nine hours Samy reached 480 accounts. In thirteen hours he was up to 8800. And in just over eighteen hours he had spread to about a million accounts, which was almost 1/30 of the total accounts on MySpace at the time. In an attempt to get rid of the worm he deleted his account. However, when he successfully deleted his profile the whole MySpace went down too. Samy was convicted of computer hacking and ordered to not touch the internet for the next following three years. What this really tells us is just how connected we all are. This concept was well known even before MySpace was conceptualized. In 1929 the Hungarian writer Frigyes Karinthy wrote a story called Chains. In Chains one of the characters challenges another character to find on Earth a person who he cannot connect with in less than five intermediaries. This is where the six degrees of separation originated from. The theory states that we are as connected to Donald Trump as much as we are to the fishmonger on the southern Japanese coast. This means that picking up two random people on the globe they are linked to each other in just six steps. In 1960 a Harvard psychologist, Stanley Milgram, tested an experiment called the small world experiment, named after the phenomenon that happens at parties when you meet someone you dont know but share a peer in common and say it is such a small world. Stanley Milgram examined the average length between American citizens.   What he did was sending three hundred packages to people in Boston and Nebraska with the goal to reach a common target person in Boston, but they were not allowed to send the package directly to him but through an intermediate who might know him or forward it to a further person that had a better chance to know him and progress the same way. Of the three hundred packages sent, only 64 made it and the average path was 5.2 steps. And that was all the experimental confirmation the six degrees of separation had at the time. Few years before Milgrams work, mathematician Paul Erdos experimented the same principle over similar networks and found out that when the number of links per node is small, the network is fragmented, however when exceeded one connection per node, the behaviour of the network changes and form a giant cluster where all the nodes seem kinked to each other. This cluster is what we might define as a small world network. While these tests prove the Trump-Japanese fishmonger thesis stated above, on the counterpart true social networks work slightly different. In 1994 Brian Turtle and two colleagues at Albright College in Reading, Pennsylvania created a game called Six Degrees of Kavin Bacon, the game, inspired by Karynthys theory, it consists in naming a celebrity and find a movie path to Bacon in as few steps as possible. Brian and his fellows came to conclusion that Kevin Bacon was the true centre of the movie universe. The movie network consists of actors who are connected by virtue of having acted together in one or more feature films. We are not just talking about Hollywood, but any movie made anywhere, anytime at all. According tothe Internet Movie Database (IMDB), between the years 1898 and 2000, roughly half a million people have acted in over two hundred thousand feature films. If you have acted in a movie with Kevin Bacon, you have a Bacon number of one (Bacon himself has bacon number of zero). Since Kevin Bacon has acted in quite a lot of movies and at last count had acted with 1550 people, it follows that 1550 actors have a Ba con number of one. This might sound a lot, and certainly Bacon has acted with many more people than the average, but it is still less than 1 percent of the total population of movie actors. Moving outward from Bacon, if you havent ever acted with him, but you have acted with somebody else who has, then you have a Bacon number of two. For example, Marilyn Monroe was in Niagara (1953) with George Ives, and George Ives was in Stir of Echoes (1999) with Kevin Bacon, so Marilyn has a Bacon number of two. In general, the object of the game is to determine an actors Bacon degree by figuring out his shortest to the great man. The small steps linking every actor to the next resembles a small world network, but unlike random network real social networks show a certain level of clustering in some points. The key component in real social networks is not only to have a high degree of clustering that means that friends of mine have other friends that are friends to each other, but also to have some few random acquaintances in order to reach distant other social networks. In 1970, a researcher named Granovetter published a paper called The Strength of Weak Ties where he stated that you as an individual are more likely to get a job through those random acquaintances than your close friends. In fact close groups of individuals are very likely to know the same people and share the same information, but are the random acquaintances that allow you to reach new jobs, places and be exposed to the outside world. Since the advent of social networks the rate of six degrees of separation have significantly dropped in between four and five steps. In 2011 Facebook stated that 92% of their users were connected through just 5 steps and at the present trend it is very likely to drop even further in the following years.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Thus, it is clear how the weaker the tie the better opportunities we have access to. Lets explain this with a clear example: me, Simone, as an Italian immigrant, I moved to the United Kingdom as an undergraduate student and I knew only one person, so my social network was two including myself,   I was trying to find a job and I could find any, so one of my housemates told me his older sister is a supervisor into the local Hilton hotel and she might be able to give me a part time job as a waiter, I started working in hospitality and this gave me a lot of exposure and access to a lot wealthy people, including very successful individuals. I kept on studying Film editing and working in hospitality while deciding what to do with my life and along came this man on his 30s talking about while he was staying in Cardiff overnight, apparently he had some work to do at BBC Wales, I shared a couple of thoughts and told him I was interested in getting an entry position in post production so he asked me for my contact details. About a month later I received a call from a di fferent person at BBC Wales where I was asked if I would be interested to attend a two weeks work placement at the Film Editing department. YOUTUBE VIDEO LAWHence, new information came into my network that was not previously there, this opportunity ended up being much more fulfilling than what I had in mind originally. So, if I had not built this network of ties that opportunity would have never been presented to me, if I was not willing to go out my comfort zone and pursued interest in those people that had something for me I would perhaps gave up and never started postgraduate studies at the Bournemouth University. This path of ties is defined as Social Capital. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1983) defined Social Capital as: The aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition. He explains that much like money, the more friends, acquaintances and professional ties one has, the more knowledge one has, the more likely one is to be successful in a specific pursuit. What is more important during university is building weak ties, interpersonal ties, each relation we tie with someone is different. Granovetter (1973) explains that there mainly three kinds of ties: weak, strong and absent. The strength of each can be correlated to an amount of time one spends with another, the emotional intensity of that tie, the level of intimacy involved, and the level reciprocity. Ideally, weak ties are low-time, low emotion, low-intimacy, high reciprocity ties formed for the purpose of transmitting information. What we want to achieve is to build weak ties that allow us to bring brand new information and social capital inside our network. Weak ties are not only used to accumulate social capital, but also help us reduce our dependency from primary groups e.g. family, weak ties are Large-scale groups that give us social capital to inject back into our primary groups. A way to build social capital through weak ties is using Online Social Networks (OSN) are what help us build weak ties and they are defined as purposeful online outreach programs with the aim of creating weak ties to bring new information (Social Capital) to an individual or primary group. BOOK LIBRARY FIRSTSocial Capital:features of social life networks, norms, and trust that enables participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectivesSocial capital, in short, refers to social connections and the attendant norms and trust. Putnam, 1995, pp. 664-5 There is often confusion about what social capital is. At first glance has something to do with community. Civil society and the social fabric its about how people are connected with one another.   P. 1 Up today, it is not clear what should be counted as social capital and what should be excluded from the concept. Societies are not composed of isolated individuals. People are connected with one another through intermediate social structures webs of association and shared understandings of how to behave. This social fabric greatly affects with whom, and how, we interact and co-operate. It is this everyday fabric of connection and tacit co-operation that the concept of social capital is intended to capture. Social capital is the sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintances and recognition. Acknowledging that capital can take a variety of forms is indispensable to explain the structure and dynamics of differentiated societies. (Bordieu and Wacquant, 1992, p. 119) A number of critics have argued for a clearer distinction between the subcomponents of social capital. Putnam framed the concept in terms of its public goods aspects, explicitly including reference to the facilitation of co-operation. Social capital is composed of forms that have three basic components: network, norms, values and expectancies that are shared by group members; and sanctions. These three components should be recognizable in almost any form of social association. They can be compared to one of the most familiar and ubiquitous forms of social capital the traditional, locally embedded community, or neighbourhood. The first component is the social network. These relationships may vary from simple recognition to deep friendships. The second component is the social norms. These are the rules, values and expectancies that characterize the community members. Living in a neighbourhood, and our relationships with our neighbours, are characterized by certain rules or social norms. Many of these rules are unwritten. Some of these norms have a behavioural component and others may be more affective in nature. In the modern neighbourhood, these norms might include: helping our neighbours where possible; being courteous and considerate and feeling positive and supportive towards our neighbourhood. These norms may also include more specific habits of reciprocity. The thi rd component is sanctions. Sanctions are not just formal such as punishment for breaking the law. Most are very informal, but nonetheless effective in maintaining social norms (Luzzati, 2000). Neighbourhood living is associated with certain kinds of association on good and bad behaviour. These often appear very mild in form but are still very effective. Neighbours find ways of communicating their disapproval of acts that violate the unwritten codes of the neighbourhood. The sanction may be though someone being told directly, such as through a disapprovance glance, an angry exchange of words or even the threat of action. More commonly, however, the sanction is indirect and subtle, such as though gossip and reputation. The sanction can also be positive, such as praise for a helpful act. Recent theoretical work has sought to break the notion of social capital down into different sub-types. Perhaps the most important of this distinction is between bonding and bridging social capital. In terms of networking Mark Granovetter made a distinction between weak and strong ties (M.S. Granovetter, 1973, 1985). Weak ties, he noted, such as with acquaintances and various contacts, were extremely useful to people in terms of getting information, opportunities and jobs. Strong ties, such as with family and close friends, provided a more intense, multi-stranded form of support, and as such might be expected to play a greater role in emotional well-being. In short different forms of social network, characterized by different forms of personal ties, seem to have different advantages and benefits. NETWORK STRUCTURE, JENGOLBECK it is really important to think about the considerations that have to take into account when considering a network. Networks consist of nodes and edges.   If we consider Facebook network, the nodes represent the friends and the edges the friendships on Facebook.   However, in real life we need to be very clear about what the edges are. Do the edges indicate social relationships between the people? Do they connect people to the classes? Is it both? Going back to the Facebook example, nodes represent people, however edges might represent not only friendship, which is absolutely fine, but an edge can connect two people who like the same music band or who went to same college. To the same extent, a LinkedIn network might reveal a different network of people according to the company they work for or people who have a similar level of expertise or certification to use professional software. So if you consider a network based on friendship, what does it mean to have a high between this? In that case it means that the person contains a lot of information and really stands between different groups of people. While a high degree centrality can represent people who have a lot of connections. So, lets consider building a network of the MAPPE framework at Bournemouth University. Step one is going to be to define the nodes. What are they and what are the criteria for being included. Which people get included as nodes? Is it just the students? Is it teachers? Is it janitors, or the librarians? Generally youll want some mix, possibly between having just students and having all the teachers. If we only include students will lose a lot of tangential people who actually do contribute.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Once defines who the nodes are the next stop is to define the edges. What does an edge represent and what is the criteria for adding one, so if we continue with the same example of the MAPPE framework, we might want to add an edge if two people know each other but   what if they only know one of another? So, what if the two students are in two different courses of the framework and they never interact with each other and they never actually meet but they do know that each o ther exist? Their relationship could still be important. I had been living between Wales and England for just five years and was beginning to feel like I had a new home with new friends, but still felt closely connected to my old ones. It occurred to me, however, that if you asked the average College student how close he or she felt to a random person in the United Kingdom, the answer would probably be not very. After all, most of my friends in Italy had never met another British before, and few of my British friends knew any Italian. The two countries are on virtually distant, and despite a certain cultural similarity and a good deal of mutual fascination, are viewed by most of their inhabitants as being almost impossibly distant, even exotic. Nevertheless, at least some small group of Italians and some small group of British actually were very close to each other, although they might not have known it, by virtue if a single common friend-me. A similar state of affairs applied on a smaller scale between my different groups of friends at University of Bournemouth. I belong to the Department of Media and communication, which is a average size graduate department in which there are more foreign students than British. I spent an awful lot of time in this department and got to know the other graduate students pretty well. But I also worked as supervisor in a local Italian restaurant and the Hilton Hotel in Cardiff, and most of the friends from Cardiff were fellow media students in various related disciplines. Finally, I had lived in students houses and had made some good friends there. My classmates know each other, my housemates know each other, and my restaurant colleagues know each other. But the different groups were all quite, well, different, without me to come and visit, my housemates, for example, would have precious little reason ever to have a meal into my restaurant. That two people can share a mutual friend whom each regard as close, but still perceive each other as being far away is a facet of social life at once commonplace and also quite mysterious. However, it is enough saying that we dont just have friends, rather we have group of friends, each of which is defined by the particular set of circumstances that led to our getting acquainted. Within each group there will tend to be a high density of interpersonal ties, but ties between different groups will typically be sparse. The groups, however, are connected by virtue of individuals who belong to more than one group. In time, these overlaps between groups may grow stronger, and the boundaries between them blur, as people from one group start to interact with people from another via the intermediation of a mutual friend. Over the years I spent at University of South Wales, my different groups of friends eventually met each other and occasionally became friends themselves. Even some of my Italian friends came to visit, and although they didnt stay long enough to form any lasting relationships, the boundary between the two countries is now, in some small way, less distinct than it was. According to Duncan J. Watts (2003) there are four major factors to consider when examining networks: First, social networks consist of many small overlapping groups that are densely internally connected and that overlap by virtue of individuals having multiple affiliations. Second, social networks are not static objects. New relationships are continually being forged and old ones abandoned. Third, not all potential relationships are equally likely. Those who I meet tomorrow depend by those who I know today. Finally, we occasionally do things that derive from our instinct, personal preferences, characteristics, and such actions may lead us to meet new individuals which we have no connection with. My decision to move to the United Kingdom was driven solely by my desire to go to graduate school, and I didnt know a soul when I got there, nor did anyone else that I knew. In other words, we do what we do in part because of the position we occupy in our surrounding social structure and in part because of our innate preferences and characteristics. In sociology, these two factors are called structure and agency, and the evolution of a social network is driven by a trade-off between the two. Because agency is the part of an individuals decision making process that is not constrained by his or her structural position, actions derived from agency appear as random events to the rest of the world. Of course, decisions like moving to another country or going to graduate school are derived from a complicated mixture of personal history and psychology and so are not random at all. Once these apparently random affiliations have been made, however structure reenters the picture and the newly created overlaps become the bridges over which other individuals can cross and form additional affiliations of their own. The dynamic evolution of relationships in a social n etwork, therefore, is driven by a balance of conflicting forces. On the one hand, individuals make what seems like random decisions to launch themselves into new social orbits. And on the other, they are constrained and enabled by their current friendships to reinforce the group structure that already exists.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Check 73 for finale The use of Social Network Sites for the Employment Seeking Process Tom Sander Phoey Lee Teh The Internet increases network density and constantly provide new opportunities for the individual. The job seeking process is heavily influenced by it. Companies and applicants can access information and resources instantaneously. The impact of Social Network platforms on the employment seeking individuals and the social [emailprotected]@@ While the importance of networking when seeking for employment has been widely explored in many articles (Granovetter) Social networks are arising new conditions for the society. Social Networks are increasingly becoming important in job hunting. A group of at least three individuals connected to each other with a tie is considered a social network. Social Networks over the Internet have a similar structure, the exchange of resources is web based, the size and speed of information is much faster than traditional networks. Each social individual lives in social networks. Social networks can be split in three categories: the ones within the individual participate and contribute; those which existence is known to the individual finally those which the individual is unaware of. The first two are considered the most relevant individual as provide suitable positions and influence the daily life of the individual. (Olugin Olguin at al. 2009). Those who seek employment gain valuable information from social networks, and while the support of social networks has been studied by many scholars the capital coming from web based social networks needs further investigation. Social networks connect individuals to each other and enable collective actions and the sharing of information and resources. The members of a network are connected through relationships of various kind; this connections represent the mechanism which keeps the network connected and functional. Each connection can be more or less important to the individual.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   P.100   THE NETWORK STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL Networks can be considered as a market where the individual can exchange, access, and share a great variety of goods and resources in pursuit of his/her interest. Certain individuals or groups of people receive higher returns in quicker period of time; some have higher positions and other lowers, and some reach their goals quicker than other. Human capital, as described by @@@, refers that the people who do better are those who are more capable and skilled than the others. Social capital is the contextual complement of human capital. The social capital says that those who do better are those who are more connected. Some people or groups are connected to others, sharing trust, supporting each other interests or being dependent on exchange to others. Being involved in one of relations is an advantage that goes under the name of Social Capital. BORDIEU, COLEMAN DEFINITION IL LAVORO DEL RUNNER As a former runner and assistant I must admit the life of a runner is no easy task and definitely not the most glorious in the film industry, but it is an essential step towards bigger and farer achievements. Essentially, a runner provides vital assistance to a senior figure in a company. The word runner is not coincidence that refers to the mansion to make sure everything runs smoothly. For many, working as a runner is the most valuable experience to get a foot in the door of TV or Film industry. Typically it is expected to perform a great variety of tasks, from carry people and equipment around to serve coffees or picking up lunch for the entire crew. However what is most valuable about being a runner is networking. While performing the tasks you are assigned you are exposed to many professional figures and building relations to those individuals is much more worth it than anything you may learn during your time as a runner. Linking with higher positions may be the necessary step to move forward in career and move from runner to assistant. Being nice, willing and having a good attitude it is a better business card than your name and phone number on a piece of paper. You never know when an assistant vacancy will be open and As Rees (1966) and Granovetter (1974) suggest, several job opportunities are accessible through social networks, for instance contacting friends, relatives or personal contacts. Because seeking employment can be costly in terms of resources and time, job seekers who access their social network tend to receive better and faster information compared to those who rely on more formal strategies such as job ads or private employment services. According to Granovetter (1974, 1995) better information travel through social networks and provide better options and positive effects such as increased wages or greater job satisfaction. According to Montgomery (1992) we derive that not only obtaining a job via networks, but also just engaging in search through networks can lead to higher wages and cost effectiveness in job search.Granovetters model assumes that social networks provide more job offers than formal job search methods. Furthermore Montgomery (1992) points out that if a job seeker received a job offer from formal methods, this does not exclude the chance to receive additional job offers from social networks that could offer a higher wage. In addition to Montgomerys study, Franzen and Hangartner (2006) assume the existence of what they call job adequacy distribution according which those who seek employment through social networks are more likely to access satisfying position as network contacts have better information on specific job characteristics as well as better information on the preferences of the job seeker. Considering the population of graduates, in addition to the obvious characteristic of having low level of human capital, this group contains or will in the near future a very limited number of employed people. This situation presents a disadvantage because of lack of employed individuals which represent a major source of information in employment seek (Jackson, 2004). If the unemployed are not exposed to this kind of source there is very limited advantage into belonging to such network. The strength of weak ties thesis emphasizes the informational advantages provided by networks (Granovetter, 1973). In particular, it remarks the chances of accessing non-redundant information about employment opportunities. The reason behind this assumption derives by the fact that weak ties help injecting different and unfamiliar pool of information inside primary networks. Furthermore, Ensel (1981) and Villemez (1986) argue that job seekers with advantaged social resources, including networks, tend to obtain better labour market outcomes. Weak ties are considered better resources and facilitate access to unfamiliar information, hence considered to supply better offers.

Favoring Villain :: Antagonist Villains Movies Essays

Favoring Villain Society thrives on movies, the excitement, the romance, and the danger. Most people watch movies as a source of entertainment, but how often do we think about the nature of the film. For instance, the film† Oceans Eleven† and â€Å"The Italian Job† were very successful movies at the box office this year. Both films have innumerable aspects of revenge and payback but probably the most apparent theme of the movies is stealing. The characters in both films are masterminds at what they feel is the perfect job, the heist of large amounts of money from their enemy. These films show the devious side of people and how they succeed in illegal actions, constructing the villain in such a way that it makes the audience favor the villain. Through repetition the writers can engage the viewers to favor the villain. Oceans Eleven starts out with the main Character Daniel Ocean getting out of jail for another job that he got caught trying to do. The character is dressed in a tuxedo and has a confident air about him. The first scene of the movie already has the audience intrigued with the character because he looks first-class. As the movie progresses the other characters are introduced, each one exceptionally well dressed with great manners, coming across as very sophisticated. Our society loves excitement and leadership, which the characters in this movie provide greatly. While introducing each new character, the writers were particular about having each character dressed remarkably well, repeating the image that they are high-quality people. Daniel Ocean makes a proposition to his very close friend played by Brad Pitt, to hit up three casinos in one night. He explains that this hit will have to be precise, it will need lots of planning, and they will have to have lots of funding. The character s come off very smoothly, relaxed and confident about what they are doing, allowing the audience to get comfortable with the idea that the characters are going to be stealing from three major corporations, all of which happen to be owned by the same man. The owner of the three casinos is a ruthless man described as someone â€Å"Who better not know your involved, not know your name, or your dead or he will kill you and then go to work on you.† The audience is already favoring Daniel Ocean and his crew, finding out that the man they are stealing from is ruthless just turns everyone against him even though he is the one who is getting robbed. Favoring Villain :: Antagonist Villains Movies Essays Favoring Villain Society thrives on movies, the excitement, the romance, and the danger. Most people watch movies as a source of entertainment, but how often do we think about the nature of the film. For instance, the film† Oceans Eleven† and â€Å"The Italian Job† were very successful movies at the box office this year. Both films have innumerable aspects of revenge and payback but probably the most apparent theme of the movies is stealing. The characters in both films are masterminds at what they feel is the perfect job, the heist of large amounts of money from their enemy. These films show the devious side of people and how they succeed in illegal actions, constructing the villain in such a way that it makes the audience favor the villain. Through repetition the writers can engage the viewers to favor the villain. Oceans Eleven starts out with the main Character Daniel Ocean getting out of jail for another job that he got caught trying to do. The character is dressed in a tuxedo and has a confident air about him. The first scene of the movie already has the audience intrigued with the character because he looks first-class. As the movie progresses the other characters are introduced, each one exceptionally well dressed with great manners, coming across as very sophisticated. Our society loves excitement and leadership, which the characters in this movie provide greatly. While introducing each new character, the writers were particular about having each character dressed remarkably well, repeating the image that they are high-quality people. Daniel Ocean makes a proposition to his very close friend played by Brad Pitt, to hit up three casinos in one night. He explains that this hit will have to be precise, it will need lots of planning, and they will have to have lots of funding. The character s come off very smoothly, relaxed and confident about what they are doing, allowing the audience to get comfortable with the idea that the characters are going to be stealing from three major corporations, all of which happen to be owned by the same man. The owner of the three casinos is a ruthless man described as someone â€Å"Who better not know your involved, not know your name, or your dead or he will kill you and then go to work on you.† The audience is already favoring Daniel Ocean and his crew, finding out that the man they are stealing from is ruthless just turns everyone against him even though he is the one who is getting robbed.

The Dam Debate :: Environmental John Muir Ecology Essays

The Dam Debate In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, John Muir, a naturalist, and Marsden Manson, an engineer for the city of San Francisco, engaged in a heated debate over the construction of a dam in Hetchy Hetchy Valley. Muir wanted to preserve nature for the future, so he objected to the dam because he felt it would destroy the beauty of the area. On the other hand, Manson believed building a dam would provide water and electricity to the thousands of people who lived in the city of San Francisco, and this would preserve the well being of the human race for the future. Both men had good points and arguments to support their views; however, in the end you have to look out for your own kind. If there is a choice about the well being of the human race or nature, I believe there is only once choice to be made – the future support of the human race. John Muir supported saving Hetchy Hetchy Valley for several reasons. He believed building a dam would close the area to the public and restrict access for people to enjoy the outdoors through camping, hiking, or just getting in touch with nature (Muir). Manson, however, believed that there was more need to provide a future source of water and electricity to the tens of thousands of people who lived in the city during that time (Manson). It is possible that Manson saw the influx of people moving to San Francisco and knew the population would explode over the years and thus, saw the need for preserving some basic essential needs for human survival. He felt that preserving nature for a few hundred people who might go hiking or camping was far less important than preserving the human race. We all know that electricity is not an essential need to survive, because people have lived by fire and candlelight for centuries, but water is essential to survival. Another argument that was discussed was building a dam would exclude the public to the watershed above the dam. This was only partially true because it would only be closed for about three and a half months of the year. Yosemite Valley had been doing this for decades to keep Tuolumne Meadows clean. Closing the area for a brief time as Yosemite Valley does would be for the same reason – to keep the watershed clean.

Problems Of Modernization In Developing Nations Essays -- essays resea

Problems of Modernization in Developing Nations The economic situation which exists in the developing world today, is the result of the relationship between the modern, and developing nations of the world. Modernized nations benefited from this relationship because it gave them access to natural resources. However, because of this relationship, many developing nations now suffer from severe problems. These nations are attempting to change the situation in which they struggle. A political cartoon I have recently seen illustrated the economic relationship between the industrialized world and the developing world. It shows that the industrial nations, The United States and Europe, are located in the northern hemisphere. On the other hand most of the developing world, Central and South America and Africa, are found in the southern hemisphere. The "well fed", well dressed individual holding the industrialized world indicates that the modernized nations of the world are prosperous, and have a high standard of living. The skinny, poorly dressed individual holding the developing world indicates that the developing nations of the world are not prosperous, and have a lower standard of living than do industrialized nations. Both individuals are supporting each other in such a way that if one is removed, the other will fall. Without resources to use, industry would not be able to maintain its existence. Likewise, without a market for their resources, or the products of indus...

How Works Electoral College

Write an essay that explains how the Electoral College works. How does the Electoral College shape the strategy of candidates? Why is it harder to win presidential elections post 1968? Every four years, on the Tuesday following the first Monday of November, millions of U. S. citizens go to local voting booths to elect, among other officials, the next president and vice president of their country. Their votes will be recorded and counted, and winners will be declared.But the results of the popular vote are not guaranteed to stand because the Electoral College has not cast its vote. thinking of the 2000 U. S. presidential election — Gore won the popular vote (more Americans voted for him), but Bush actually won the presidency, because he was awarded the majority of the votes in the Electoral College. The Electoral College consists of the popularly elected representatives (electors) who formally elect the President and Vice President of the United States. Since 1964, there have b een 538 electors in each presidential election. 1] Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the Constitution specifies how many electors each state is entitled to have and that each state's legislature decides how its electors are to be chosen. U. S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College. The Electoral College is an example of an indirect election. The election for President and Vice President is not a direct election by United States citizens. Citizens vote for electors, representing a state, who are the authorized constitutional participants in a presidential election.The Twelfth Amendment provides for each elector to cast one vote for President and one vote for Vice President. The final electors for each state are voted on by the state's residents on voting day Today, a candidate must receive 270 of the 538 votes to win the election. In cases where no candidate wins a majority of electoral votes, the decision is thrown to the House of Representatives by virtue of the 12th Amendment. The House then selects the president by majority vote with each state delegation receiving one vote to cast for the three candidates who received the most electoral votes.Electoral College is a block, or weighed, voting system that is designed to give more power to the states with more votes, but allows for small states to swing an election, as happened in 1876. Under this system, each state is assigned a specific number of votes that is proportional to its population, so that each state's power is representative of its population. So, while winning the popular vote may not ensure a candidate's victory, a candidate must gain popular support of a particular state to win the votes in that state.The goal of any candidate is to put together the right combination of states that will give him or her 270 electoral votes. In 2000, as the election approached, some observers thought that Bush, interestingly also the son of a former president, could win the popular vote, but t hat his opponent, Gore, could win the Electoral College vote because Gore was leading in certain big states, such as California, New York and Pennsylvania. In the end, Gore secured the popular vote, but Bush won by securing the majority of votes in the Electoral College.The United States presidential election of 1968 was the 46th quadrennial United States presidential election. It was a wrenching national experience, conducted against a backdrop that included the assassination of civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and subsequent race riots across the nation, the assassination of presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy, widespread demonstrations against the Vietnam War across American university and college campuses, and violent confrontations between police and anti-war protesters at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.On November 5, 1968, the Republican nominee, former Vice President Richard Nixon won the election over the Democratic nominee, Vice President Hubert Hum phrey. Nixon ran on a campaign that promised to restore â€Å"law and order†. Some consider the election of 1968 a realigning election that permanently disrupted the New Deal Coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years. It was also the last election in which two opposing candidates were vice-presidents